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10
LE
A Short History of Indian
Materialism^ Sensationalism
and Hedonism
BY
Dr. DAKSHINARANJAN SHASTRI
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Oriental scholars are unanimous that the
works on Materialism and Sensationalism in
their relation to the Hindu system of
Philosophy are very rare, and that this dearth
of literature stands in the way of properly
understanding Hindu thoughts and ideas in
regard to these subjects both in this country
and in the West. In the following pages I
have attempted to present before the public a
bird’s eye view of the origin and development
of Materialism and Sensationalism in India.
I have been urged to make this humble effort
not by the belief that my contributions to the
knowledge on these subjects are likely to be of
any considerable value, but by the hope that
insignificant as they are they will serve to
attract to the subject the attention of worthier
scholars and call forth their energies. This
short treatise has been designed to prepare the
ground for a systematic study of Indian
Materialism and I have spared no pains to
make it as such. My labours will be amply
rewarded if on the perusal of my humble work
one single reader feels himself interested in the
study of Indian Materialism, Sensationalism
and Hedonism.
I have much pleasure in acknowledging
here my indebtedness to Mahamohopadhyaya
Dr. Haraprasad Shastri, M.A., D.Litt., C.I.E.,
Mahamohopadhyaya Dr. Bhagabat Kumar
Shastri, M.A., Ph.D., and Principal Gopinath
Kaviraj, M.A., whose very interesting articles
iv
throw many new lights on the subject. I also
express my gratitude to Dr. Mahendra Nath
Sarkar, M.A., Ph.D., whose class room lectures
on Psychology were of help to me. No less is
my debt of gratitude to Professor Shyama
Charan Mukherjee, M.A., and Srijut Eamsankar
Dutt for their valuable help in seeing the book
through the press. My thanks are also due to
Srijut Upendra Kumar Bose, Librarian,
Sanskrit College, and his assistant, who gave
me every possible help I needed and to the
authorities of the Book Company, Calcutta, for
the interest they have taken in the publication
of this little book.
I take this opportunity to express my
heart felt thanks to Dr. Aditya Nath
Mukher jee, M.A., P.R.S., Ph.D., I.E.S., Dars'ana-
sagar. Principal Sanskrit College who induced
me to take up this task, gave me many valuable
suggestions.
Sanskrit College,
The Slst March, 1930,
Dakshinaranjan Shastri.
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
It is well known to students of Indian
philosophy that the original sutra works of
the materialists, sceptics and agnostics- of India
are now lost to us. To be compelled to rely
exclusively for a certain doctrine or way of
thought on its presentation by its avowed
opponents are seldom found free from pre-
judices and personal predilections. Purvapak?as
or the opponent’s views are almost invariably
presented in an inadequate and unsympathetic
manner, so that no sound judgment as their
proper philosophical worth can be easily
formed. If one notes how the doctrines of the
Sarvastivadin Buddhists, the Pas'upatas, and
the Paflaratras have suffered at the hands of
S'ahkaracarya, it would be clear that the study
of a certain system from its presentation by
its opponents has to be undertaken with a
proper appreciation of these difficulties. An
attempt has been made here to collect from
different sources fragments of actual statements
by the founders and propounders of different
schools of the materialists, sceptics and agno-
stics of India]. [Kusumanjali, Nyayamafijari,
Advaita-brahmasiddhi, Vivara i^-a-prameya-sa li
graha, and numerous other works by orthodox
writers, Hindu and Jain, Sanskrit and Prakrit
works, and Buddhist Pali works, all contain a
good deal of useful information on these schools.
But these are only fragments of the original
works of these schools now irrevocably lost to
us. The purvapaksas or views of opponents,
vi
in which form they appear in subsequent
literature, have been studied in the light of and
interpreted consistently in the spirit of, the
fragmentary texts yet preserved of the earliest
exponents of the systems.
It is pointed out in this connection that the
Oriental Institute of Baroda has published in
the year 1940 “Tattvopaplavasimha” of
Jayarasi Bliatfa which is an interesting work
of the Lokayata school of philosophy. Attempts
have been made in the present edition to utilise
Jayaras'i’s work.
The first edition of this short history
published in 1930 has completely been exhaust-
ed long ago. Since then the book was almost
lost to the interested readers who insisted
on its re-publication from time to time-
Inspite of the fact that I also felt some sort of
responsibility to bring out its second edition,
I faded to do so earlier due to my indisposition
of health and other unavoidable short-comings.
At length, the publication saw the light of the
day being embodied with the results of my
further study on the subject, the credit of which
goes direct to my affectionate Sriman Bani-
kantha Chakravarty B.Sc., C.A. and to the
authorities of the Bookland Private Ltd. But
for their juvenile enthusiasm the matter would
have been delayed for unlimited time.
D. R. S.
Calcutta,
The 31st March, 1957.
BIBLIOGRAPHY,
Dacca University Bulletin_, No. I.
Saras wati Bhaban Studies,, Vol. II & III.
Tattva Sangralia Gaekwad Series.
Saddars'ana Samuchchaya.
Sarvadars'ana Sangralia.
The positive sciences of the Ancient Hindus.
Nyayamanjari of Jayanta.
Chaitanya and his age.
Sammati Tarkaprakara^la.
History of Materialism — Lange.
An outline of Philosophy — Russels.
Modern Materialism — William Dougall.
Materialism : Has it been Exploded ?
The Panjab Sanskrit Series I.
Six Systems of Indian Philosophy — Max
Vidwanmoda % arangiljL i.
Kusumanjali.
Advaitabrahmasiddhi.
The vivara Q.aprameyasangraha.
The Commentary on Brhatsamhita — Bhottotpala.
The Ramayana.
The Mahabharata.
N aishadhacharitam.
Prameyakamalamartanda.
Buddhacharitam by Asvaghosha.
JProbodha Chandrodaya Natakam.
Angutharanikaya.
Asvalayana Sutta.
Milindapanha.
Indian Philosophy — Radhakrishnan.
The Epics — Hopkins.
Sarvamatasangraha.
The Problems of Hindu Philosophhy.
viil
Pre-Buddhistic Philosophy.
Sarvasiddhantasangrah
The Purva Mimarasa System.
The Vishnu PuralJLam.
The Pandma Pural^Lam.
Arthas'astra of Koutilya.
Li. de la Vallee Poussin — Materialism (Indian).
A Sketch of Indian Materialism — Tucci.
Nanaprabandha.
Fellowship I.ectures — Mahamohopadhyaya Chandrakanta
Tarkadankar and Mahamohopadhyaya Durgacharan
Sankhya Vedantatirtha.
Spread of Buddhism.
The Rigveda.
Charvaka Shashti, etc.
Bharatiya Nastik Dars'aner Itibritta
(Bangadars'an, Nava Paryaya Baishakh 1316)
Tattvopaplava Siihha.
A Short History of Indian
Materialism^ Sensationalism
and Hedonism
INTRODUCTION
Indian materialism has passed through
four logical stages of development. In its
first stage it was a mere tendency of opposi-
tion. It called in question all kinds of
knowledge, immediate as well as mediate and
all evidence perception as well as inference.
It denied the authority of even the Vedas.
In that period, its name was Barhaspatya. In
its second stage, Svabh&vav&da, recognition
of perception as a source of knowledge and
the theory of the identification of body with
the self, w«re incorporated into it. In that
stage, it took the form of a system of philo-
sophy. However low its position may be, in
the rank of philosophical systems, it can by
no means be denied that, at that remote period
of Indian history, it was the only system of
philosophy, worthy of its name. In that period
flourished famous materialists like Ajita Kes'a-
kambalin, Kambalas'vatara and Puraija Kas'-
yapa. In that stage it came to be known as
Lok&yata. In its third stage, an extreme form of
^hedonism, which was due, perhaps, to tlie
2
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
corruption of freedom of thought — social, reli-
gious and political, formed the most important
feature of this school. Gross sensual pleasure
superseded bliss or contemplative joy and licen-
tiousness replaced liberty. Devils occupied
the seats of angels. As a consequence of this
impact of corruption and misunderstanding,^.
cJikrvkkism originated. In that stage this
school preached — ‘Eat, drink and be merry, for,,
to-morrow we may die.’ The reaction to this
extreme form of licentiousness was destructive
to the very vitality of this school. From that
time this extreme form of materialistic school
leaned towards sjiiritualism. So long it had
maintained that the body was the self. In
that period, being severely attacked by the-
spiritualists, it gave up the theory that there
was no self apart from the body and tried^
gradually, to identify the sense organs, breath,,
and the organ of thought with the self. Before
that the materialists had affirmed that inference
was not a means of knowledge. But in this
stage they accepted at first Probability and
then even Inference, though in a restricted
form, as a source of true knowledge. Philo-
sophers, like Purandara, were the advocates of
this form of Indian materialism. In its fourth
stage, it came to be at one with the Buddhists^
and the Jains in opposing the Vedicists and
got the common designation N^stika, A
N^stika is one who condemns the Vedas —
N^stiko Veda-nindakah. The texts, added
in" the appendix with evidences of their
INDIAN MATERIALISM
3
genuineness, record some of the views of these
different stages in a blended form. As the
literature of this school is now entirely lost,
except what has reached us in fragments, we
are quite unable to give here, verbatim, all the
original Sntras of this school which represent
its various aspects and phases. But there are
passages both in Sutra and sloka form which
embody in substance these different stages of
the Lokayata school. We can have a complete
systematic work of the materialists of India if
we gather them together in a sympathetic
manner.
Tradition ascribes to Brhaspati the first
treatise of this school and there is no reason
for rejecting this view. It is evident Irom the
Sutras extant and quoted under Brhaspati’s
name that he was not a mythical figure. He
was an historical personage. But it is very
difficult to ascertain who this Brhaspati was.
It is probable that the conception of this school
first dawned on Brhaspati, the preceptor of the
gods, who is regarded by scholars like Professor
Belvalkar as the first founder of this Barhas-
patya system. If we be authorised to give the
credit of founding this system to more men
than one then we should like to mention the
names of Ajita Kes'akambalin, Charvaka and
Purandara as the second, third and fourth
founders respectively of the Lokayata, Char-
vaka and Nastika systems. We know from the
Mahabhasya of Patanjali that Bhaguri was
one of the expounders of the Lokayata dogmas.
Not a single Sutra attributed to Bhaguri of the
4
INDIAN MATERIALISM
Lokayata school having been recovered we can-
not give him any position in these stages of
development of Indian Materialism and Sensa-
tionalism. We shall deal, now, in the following
pages, with these four distinct steps of evolu-
tion of Indian Materialism more elaborately.
EVOLUTION OF MATEEIALISM AND
SENSATIONALISM IN INDIA
In ancient India, the necessaries of life
being abundantly provided for by nature, the
struggle for existence was not very keen. The
people’s tastes were not nice. In order to
escape from the heat of the tropical sun, they
took up their abode in the shady groves or in
the caves of mountain valleys. Their peace of
mind was not disturbed by political strife.
In the absence of the art of writing the people
were a stranger to literary ambition, nor were
their energies called forth by art or science.
There was no literature except what could be
retained in memory. The metaphysical and
religious problems formed almost the only
subjects of speculation. They meditated on
how and why the world was in which they
lived. What were they ? Whence came they f
Whither went they ? What had they to do f
They made an endeavour to answer these
questions in their own way, and thus laid the
foundation of philosophical enquiries in India.
These queries are recorded in the Vedas, the
oldest literature of mankind still extant.
These earliest attempts cannot properly be
called philosophical systems, rigidly consistent
and calmly reasoned. They are mere tenden-
cies scattered and unsystematic like landmarks
in an ocean. After a long course of develop-
ment, from the first hesitating and imperfect
stage of tendencies, they became perfect.
Amongst these re-arranged, systematic, consis-'
tent calmly reasoned, perfect systems of Indian
6
INDIAN MATERIALISM
philosophy materialism can be counted as very
old. Some go so far as to count it as the oldest
and adduce, among others, the following
reasons in support of their opinion. It is a
fact that all other schools, in their respective
systems, try to refute the truths established by
this school, thus admitting its priority. It is
also a fact that the word Dars'ana in its primary
sense means perception. In its secondary
sense it means the S'astra which is as good an
authority as perception. This emphasis on
perception reminds us of the materialists and
there are scholars who maintain that the word
was first originated by the followers of
Brhaspati. It was from them that the word
was borrowed by other schools. This fact
induces them to establish the priority of this
Dars'ana to all other Dars'anas. Scholars are,
also, bold enough to declare that the materia-
listic school is the only original school of
philosophy. All other schools were originated,
simply, for the sake of refuting and destroying
this school whose teachings according to them
were detrimental to the best interests of man-
kind. Others, again, do not go so far. It may
be, say they, as old as other schools of philo-
sophy, but not older. Materialism is preached
nowhere as a doctrine of philosophy, except
as a re-action against some perverted ideas or
practices. The materialists of India, namely,
Brhaspati and his followers, do not pretend to
lay down a constructive system of philosophy
of their own. They try to refute foolish
orthodoxy of other schools. This, in their
INDIAN MATERIALISM
7
opinion, proves that the system of Byhaspati
cannot he the first system. It is rather the
last. It raises objections against the views of
all other systems and pre-snpposes the exis-
tence of all other schools, thereby.
Blit all systems of philosophy are the
growth of years, nay, of centuries. The
systems which we possess of the different
schools of philosophy, each distinct from the
other, are rather the last summing up of what
had been growing up among many generations
of isolated thinkers and cannot claim to
represent the very first attempts at a systematic
treatment. A large mass of philosophical
thought must have existed in India long before
there was any attempt at dividing it into well
defined departments of systematic philosophy
or reducing it to writing. But such a growth
must have required a great length of time. So
it is probable that during that long period the
views of one system were discussed in another.
During that long period anything could be
u,dded and anything left out. Subsequently
each system reached the form in which we
possess it. It is not improbable that the
Lokayata school of philosophy, being developed
as the first system of philosophy, raised
objections against the views of other schools
which were even then mere tendencies and
which took shape as systems later on. Thus,
-although, as mere tendencies almost all philo-
sophical thoughts are contemporaneous, as
systems they belong to different ages. The
school of Bfhaspati is regarded as the weakest
8
INDIAN MATERIALISM
school of philosophy in comparison with other ^
schools. The law of evolution or gradual
development proves that the earliest school is
the weakest and the latest the strongest. If
the Materialistic school be the weakest, it is
probable that it is the earliest also.
The First Stage.
Originally, this school of Brhaspati meant
Vitai^da or casuistry and nothing else. In it
Vitaiida was essential. With its impatience of
Vitai^Lda. all authority, it tried to refute the views of
other schools. It was, in its original stage,,
without any constructive element and without
any positive theory to propound. It was
negative and destructive. The record of this
period is kept by Jayaras'i Bhatta, author of
Tattvopaplava Sim ha. This negative aspect
of this doctrine finds expression in the Vedas
themselves. From the earliest Vedic times,,
there were people who denied the existence of
even the Vedic deities. The Vedic hymns
pointedly refer to scoffers and unbelievers.
Those hymns, which are traditionally ascribed
to Brhaspati, son of Loka, contain the first
germs of protest against a mere verbal study
of the Veda and emphatically declare that a
man, who tries to understand the Veda, is far
superior to a mere sacerdotal priest. The
Maijduka hymn is a panegyric of frogs who
are described as raising their voices together
at the commencement of the rains like Brahmin
pupils repeating the lessons of their teachers
and this celebrated hymn on frogs is a satire,
says Professor Maxmiiller, upon the Vedic-
priesthood, or better upon the system of hynm
INDIAN MATERIALISM
9
chanting. Yaska clearly tells us that those
who merely memorise the texts, without
knowing the meaning, do not see the real form
of the Veda and that such people are deluded,
in as much as the way to attain the summum
bonum is not revealed to them. In various
Brahma ^as mere knowledge of a performance
has been mentioned as having the same effect
as the performance itself. In the Chhandogya
UiJanisad it is stated that a performance
accompanied by knowledge, produces a better
result than a performance without knowledge.
Jaimini, in his Pfirva mlmansa system,
recording this opposition devotes an entire
chapter to drawing the conclusion that study
consists not only in learning by heart
the letter of the Veda but also in clearly
understanding its spirit. Traces of an opposi-
tion to the religion of the Vedas appear
in the Vedas and in later works. In Aitareya
Arai?.yaka we find — ‘Why should we repeat
the Veda or offer this kind of sacrifice
Later on the very authoritativeness of the Vedas
was questioned by Kautsya. Opposition was the
only duty of the followers of Brhaspati and
they did it from the very beginning of their
career. They opposed the Vedas and the
practice of repeating them without understand-
ing their meaning. But all these represent
only the opposing, destructive or negative
aspect of the Barhaspatya system. And it is;
well-known that a system ceases to have any
great interest and even value without a cons-
tructive element, without a positive theory to*
10
INDIAN MATERIALISM
Barhas-
patya.
propound. So the doctrine of the followers of
BThaspati appeared to be incomplete without
any positive element in it. It felt the necessity
of a positive element. Everybody knows that
necessity is the mother of invention. Barhas-
patya in its very early stage found out the
means of being complete. So long under the
designation Barhaspatya it admitted no autho-
rity other than its own. Now, in its second
stage, in explanation of the why of an event
or product it accepted the doctrine of
Svahhikva. This doctrine of Svahhkva main-
tains that Hhe effects are self existent and are
produced neither by different things as causes
nor by themselves inasmuch as no cause can be
found for the filament of the lotus or the eye-
like marks on the peacock’s tail. If it cannot
be found it certainly does not exist. Such is
the case with this diversified universe. Simi-
larly, feelings like pleasure, pain, etc., have no
causes, because they appear only at times’.
This doctrine of Svahhkva had been in vogue
in independent forms. In course of centuries
this doctrine, like many other doctrines, lost its
independence altogether and came to be affilia-
ted to the Barhaspatya system. The conse-
quence of this gradual assimilation has been a
blending of thoughts. The followers of Brhas-
pati became at one with, and the earliest
representatives of, the extreme form of
Svabhava vada. Prom this time, the
rejection of causal principle, the rejection
of good and evil consequences of actions,
formed its most important feature. The
INDIAN MATERIALISM
11
product comes into existence without any
cause. This materialistic view was emphasised
by Brhaspati in Vedic times. Tn the first age
of the gods the existent was born of the non-
existent — Asatah Sadaj^yata, The SVetas'-
vatara Upanisad contains a nominal enuncia-
tion of some of the most popular theories
current in its times in explanation of the origin
of the universe and Naturalism forms one of
this number — K^lah Svahhkvo Niyatirya-
dxchhk^ etc. Up till then it was an indepen-
dent doctrine and the Barhaspatyas were
merely the oppositionists. Brhaspati, with a
lofty enthusiasm, flung away the fetters of
religion that he might be righteous and noble.
Some of the verses of the Vedic hymns ascribed
to Brhaspati are very noble in thought.
Whatever may be said of his followers, his own
teachings were of an elevated character.
BFhaspati had many followers and all of them
were independent thinkers raising objections
against the current superstitions. It is perhaps
for his freedom of thought that he was
regarded as the priest — the adviser, — the coun-
sellor of India, the king of the gods.
But this state of things changed very soon.
A re-action against the school of Brhaspati
appeared on the stage. Perhaps the negative
or destructive element of the doctrine was
responsible for this reaction. The Vedic litera-
ture, posterior to the Mantras is disfigured by
filthy story and anecdotes in which the pious
sages poured out vials of their wrath on the
•devoted heads of those early oppositionists,
14
INDIAN MATERIALISM
most abominable shapes, as in this period of
Indian cultural history. A dark shadow fell
upon the oppositionists — the independent
thinkers. All independent line of thinking,
became for hundreds of years to come an
impossibility through the powerful influence of
various schools of the Vedicists.
The Second Stage.
The state of things turned, however,,
through the influence of Naturalism. Opposed
by the strong advocates of the orthodox
Naturalism Community the Lokayatikas returned with the
and affiliation of naturalism or Svabhavavada.
Perception. Neither of these two doctrines Lokayata and
Svabhavavada accepted the good or evil conse-
quences of actions. The Lokayata school,,
which was so long a mere tendency, with the
incorporation of naturalism, formed a philoso-
phical system. Thus originated the first
Lokayata. jj^rs'ana or the LoHyata Datiana. Percep-
tion was emphasised in the very name of this
newly built-up system, Dars'ana. So long
the Barhaspatyas did not admit any authority
whatsoever. Now, in its new shape, the school
accepted the authority of perception. Percep-
tion became the only criterion of existence.
Whatever was not perceived was held to have
no existence at all. The causal principle was
rejected, because, sensuous perception is not an
evidence in support of its existence. For mere
perception of two events, which stand isolated
and self-cantained, is not sufficient to establish
between them a causal relation. ‘To ascertain
whether a given antecedent condition has the
INDIAN MATERIALISM 1 &
character of a true cause it is really necessary
to find out with certainty the elements of
invariability and of relevancy involved in such
a notion. But this certitude can never be
arrived at\ The universal propositions can-
not be established by our limited perceptions.
Perception presupposes actual contact of the
object with the perceiving organ and is thus
necessarily confined to the present. It is a case
of here and now. It does not extend to the
past or the future and is thus unable to estab-
lish universal connection of things. In other
words, sense perception can give us only
particular truths. But knowledge of particular
facts cannot give us knowledge which is
universally true. Therefore perception cannot
give us universal relation. Nor can universal
relation be established by Inference alone. For,
the inference, which yields a universal relation
as its conclusion, cannot work unless it pre-
supposes another universal connection as a
necessary pre-condition of its possibility and
that again another and so on. In other words,
the process of reaching a universal conclusion
is always like arguing in a circle. Vy^pti is
derived from Anunikna and Anumkna again
from Vy%ptL Thus even inference in itself is
not sufficient to produce a universal proposi-
tion. Nor is the universal relation supplied
by testimony. For, testimony involves in-
ference. Comparison is equally unable to
establish a universal relation. Comparison
only establishes the relation of a name to some-
thing that bears that name. Now, such.
16
INDIAN MATERIALISM
relation of the name and of the named is a
particular relation, whilst we are in search of
an unconditional universal relation. Thus, the
universal relation, which is indispensable to
all inference, is not given by any of the so-
called sources of knowledge. Therefore, uni-
versal relation cannot, by any means, be
established. As inference is not possible
without universal connection and universal
connection is unattainable the Lokayata as a
system discarded, in its earlier stages, inference
as a source of knowledge.
It rejected ether as an element, because,
ether cannot be known by perception and it
maintained that the four elements of earth, air,
fire and water are the original principles of all
things. The four elements, in their atomic
condition,* when mixed together in a certain
* The theory that matter consists of “atoms”, i.e.
of little bits that cannot be divided, is very old. But
in its old shape it was only a speculation. The evidence
for what is called the atomic theory was derived from
chemistry, and the theory itself, in its nineteenth-
century form, was mainly due to Dalton in Europe. It
was found that there were a number of ‘elements’ and
that other substances were compounds of these elements.
Compound substances were found to be composed of
molecules, each molecule being composed of ‘atoms’ of
one substance combined with atoms of another or of
the same. A molecule of water consists of two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen ; they can be
separated by electrolysis. It was supposed, until
radio-activity was discovered, that atoms were indes-
tructible and unchangeable. Substances which were
not compounds were called elements. The discovery
of radio-activity led to the conclusion that what had been
called ‘atoms* were really complex structures, which
could change into atoms of a different sort by losing
a part. After various attempts at imagining the
INDIAN MATERIALISM
17
proportion and according to a certain order,
become transformed into aii organism.
Consciousness is a function of the body. Evolution
For the manifestation of consciousness, body
IS an indispensable factor. Consciousness does
not inliere in particles of matter. When these
l)ai‘ticles come to be arranged into a specific
form, in a manner not yet scientifically expli-
cable, they are found to show signs of life.
Life and consciousness are indentical. Our
thinlcing power is destroyed with tlie dissolu-
tion of the elements from whose combination it
structure of an atom, physicists were led to accept the
view of Sir Ernest Rutherford, which was further
developed hy Niels Bohr. In this tlieory, all matter is
composed of two sorts of units, electrons and protons.
All electrons are exactly alike, and all protons are
exactly alike. All protons carry a certain amount of
positive electricity, and all electrons carry an equal
.amount of negative electricity. Protons repel each
other and electrons repel each other, but an electron
and a proton attract each other. Every atom is a
structure consisting of electrons and Protons. The
hydrogen atom, whicli is the simplest, consists of one
proton with one electron going round it as a planet
goes round the sun. The electron may be lost, and the
proton left alone ; the atom is then positively electrified,
d'he great merit of Bohr’s theory was that it explained
wliy elements have the Spectra they do have, which had,
before, been a complete mystery. According to this
theory of atomic structure ‘an atom’ with its electrons
is a system characterised by certain integers all small,
and all capable of changing independently. The newer
theory has been put forward in 1926, mainly by two
German physicists, Heisenberg and Schrodinger, owing
to them, the last vestiges of the old solid atom have
melted away, and matter has become as ghostly as any-
thing in a spiritualist seance. Broadly speaking, it
describes the atom by means of the radiations that come
out of it. This newer theory confines itself to what
is empirically verifiable namely radiations ; as to what
there is where the radiations come from we cannot tell,
2
18
INDIAN MATERIALISM
is evolved. Consciousness is produced from
the body which is endowed with life and vital
air. Without sensation no consciousness is
Xiossible. When the body perishes no consci-
ousness can remain, it must perish also, tio
there is notlung to transmigrate. The body,
consciousness and sense organs are momentary.
Mind is merely the product of a combination
of elements, just as, some acid eructations or
wines are results of chemical combinations.
The four elements when combined i)roduce or
manifest the mind. There is no other reality
than the four BhiXtas. The instinctive move-
ments and expressions of new-born babes are
due to ‘external stimuli as much as the o^jening
and closing of the lotus and other flowers at
different hours of the day or night, or the
movement of iron under the influence of load
stone. In the same way the spontaneous
generation of living organisms is frequently
observed, e.cj,, the case of animalcules which
develop in moisture or infusions, especially
under the influence of gentle warmth or of the
maggots or other worms which in the rainy
season by reason of the atmospheric moisture^
are developed in the constituent particles of
curds and the like, which begin to live and
move in so short a time’. It is an indisputable
fact that sensations and perceptions can arise
and it is scientifically unnecessary to speculate. The
mainpoint for the philosopher in the modern theory is
the disappearance of matter as a “thing.” It has been
replaced by emanations from a locality — the sort of
influences that characterise haunted rooms in ghost
stories. — Russell.
INDIAN MATERIALISM
19
only in so far as they are conditioned by a
bodily mechanism. But, it would not be so
were not the body the receptacle of conscious-
ness. The properties of particular prepara-
tions of food and drink, conducive to the
development of the intellectual powers, aft’oi’d
another proof in favour of the fact that
consciousness is a function of the body. Points
and evidences of correspondence between mind
and body — correspondence between the Psy-
chical and Nervous processes — and correspon-
dence between mind and brain, the seat of
mind, are not rare. The most definite aspects
of this corresijondence are — correspondence in
quantity — the correspondence in change, corres-
X3ondence in growth and development, corres-
X3ondence in inheritance and corresx)ondence in
quality. When communication is cut off
between the brain and any other of the
body owing to the nerves of that jiart being-
diffused, there is no longer any feeling or
sensation connected with that i^art. Psycholo-
gical experiments jjrove measurable interval
of time between the application of stimulus
and the corresponding sensation. Prolonged
thought and intense emotion the
sensation of fatigue and exhaustion in the
brain and if carried further produce pain and
disorder. Increase of mental work is accom-
panied by an increase of brainwork. Intense
mental activity is followed by a casting off of
a kind of brain substance known as phosphorus.
Comparison of the brains of different creatures
and different races of men and of different
20
INDIAN MATERIALISM
The
ultimate
reality
in matter.
individuals shows that there is a connection
between intelligence and the size, weight and
comidexity of the brain. Generally speaking
the larger the brain, in relation to the rest of
the body, the more the intelligence. So the
Lokayatas say that Mind is only a form or
product of the body. The ultimate reality is
matter. Consciousness is a function of the
body. As contraction is the function of
muscles, as the kidneys secrets urine, so and
in the same way does the brain generate
thoughts, movements and feelings. Mind,
therefore, has no substantial reality of its own,
but, springs out of the vibrations of the mole-
cules ot the brain. When the molecular
activity ot‘ the brain sinks below a certain level
generally known as the threshold of conscious-
ness, consciousness disappears^ mind ceases to
exist as in sleep. When, again, it rises above
a certain degree consciousness re-appears.
Conscious liie is not a life of continuity. It
is coming out of and again going into nothing.
The hypothesis of a continuous stream of con-
sciousness is a myth of the Divines and the
Theologians. This theory is some times known
as the Theory of automatism — mind is merely
Epiphenomenon or by-product. But there is a
difficulty in establishing this theory. The
spiritualists raised an objection against the
newly built-up materialistic system. The
objection is this. As the body is declared to
be the agent of all actions it should be held
responsible for their natural consequences. But
this is impossible. The particles which form
INDIAN MATERIALISM
21
the body are always in a state of flux and the
body which performs an action at one moment
does not persist at the next to feel its re-action.
It is on the other hand undeniable that the body
suffers change. Otherwise they could not have
different sizes. To this, the reply of the
Lokayatikas is this. The Lokayata system does
not admit the existence of Karmaphala or the
consequence of good or evil actions. The
experience of pleasure and pain comes by
chance. Nature is all powerful. Moreover, re-
cognition proves the identity of the body
through all its changing states. There is
another difficulty. The spiritualists advance
another objection against the materialists.
The objection is put in the following manner.
The theory of matter is unable to account for
the facts of memory and recognition. Necessity
of thought demands that memory and original
experience which gives rise to it should be
referred to one and the same conscious subject.
But this identity of reference would be possible
only when the subject is fundamentally an
unchangeable vinity. This difficulty is removed
by the Lokayatikas in the following manner.
The traces left by previous experiences are
capable of being transmitted from the material
cause down to its direct product, an analogous
instance being the transference of the odour
of musk to the cloth in contact with it. But
the general answer, of this school to every why
is the doctrine of Svabhava. Everything
happens through the influence of Svabhava
which is all-powerful. It is Svabhava or law
22
INDIAN MATERIALISM
of nature that the consciousness is a function
of the body and the body is the self. The
Lokayatikas refuted the theory of Paraloka —
or previous and future births as there was no
reality existing before birth or after death. The
four ‘bhutas’ or atoms of primary elements are
the only realities. Mind is the production of
these elements. So it cannot be maintained
that the mind at death passes on to another
body. Mind in different bodies must be
different. The consciousness of a body which
has already perished cannot be related to the
body which comes into being. One mind can-
not produce another mind after total annihila-
tion. The theory that the foetus is endowed
with consciousness cannot be asserted. With-
out sensation no consciousness is jiossible. All
knowledge is derived from sense experience
alone. All knowledge is posterior to and
derived from exx^erieiice. The sense organs
cannot revive sensations when they are not in
existence. Therefore the foetus cannot be
endowed with consciousness. No jiower is pos-
sible without a recipient. When the body
perislies consciousness cannot remain as there
is no recix^ient of consciousness. With the
<lestructioii of the body consciousness, also,
must xierish. ff you hold that the previous,
jiresent and future births are nothing but parti-
cular conditions of the stream of consciousness
which according to you is eternal the Lokaya-
tikas would say that the chain of consciousness
is not an entity and a condition that can be
X^redicated only in respect of an entity cannot
INDIAN MATERULISM
23
therefore be proved. A future existence of an
entity wliicli is non-existent cannot be predi-
cated. With this line of argumentation tlie
I^okayatikas of that period rejected the exist-
ence of future or previous births. The
Lokayatikas of that stage also maintained that
there was no soul apart from the body. If
there be any soul it is only the living principle
ol* all organisms. It exists so long as our body
exists and ceases to exist when the body ceases
to exist. It is the body that feels, sees, hears,
r (‘members and thinks. In sayings like ‘I am
fat,’ T am lean,’ T am dark’, by T’ we evidently
mean the body. Fatness, leanness or darkness
reside only in the body. Such phrases as ‘my
body’ are metaphorically used. Just as a knave
might induce an innocent person to accept glass
and such other worthless materials in exchange
J*or ijrecious stones so has the S'ruti misled the
innocent devotee by making him believe that
the soul is distinct from the body, displacing
his inborn, and therefore the right belief that
the body and the soul are identical. As nothing
like soul exists after death to go to the next The
world there is no necessity of admitting the
existence of such a place. With the denial of denied.
Karmaphala this school denied the existence
of the universal mysterious agency called Fate
or Adfsta or Daiva. It denied the existence
ot merits or demerits acquired in our previous
existence. In answer to the objections that fate
must be admitted as the cause of the differences
and determinations of the phenomenal world
Brhaspati’s followers bring forward the doc-
24
INDIAN MATERIALISM
The Vedas
attacked.
trine of Svabhava or spontaneous generation
of things according to their respective natures
So there is no use practising virtue and avoid-
ing sins. Religion is as harmful as opiiin>
intoxication. Prayer is the hope of men who*
are weak, without will power to do anything ;
worship is an insincere egoism to save one self
from the tortures of hell ; prophets are the
greatest liars among men. The Vedas are no-
authority. There are mantras in the Vedas
which do not convey any meaning whatsoever ;
some mantras are ambiguous ; some are absui'd ;
some are contradictory ; some re^jeat what is
already known. As regards the other portions
of the Vedas we always find discrepancies and
contradictions among them. Cases are not rare
where a line of action prescribed by one text
is condemned by another. Again, they speak
oF results that are never realised. Some
portions are rejected by the Vedicists them-
selves as interpolations. There are proper
names and ex^ithets as well as foolish state-
ments like the ravings of a mad man. Hence
the Vedas are not only human comx)Ositions
but even worse. The buffoon, the knave, and
the demon — these are the three authors of the
Vedas. All the obscene rites commended for
the queen in the horse sacrifice have been
invented by knaves. So also the custom of
giving presents to j^riests and that of eating
flesh have been commended by night-prowling
demons. If it were j^ossible for the sacrifices
to make one reach heaven after the perform-
ances have ceased, the performers themselves
INDIAN MATERIALISM
26
have perished and the requisites have been
used up, then the trees of a forest burnt down
by fire might produce abundant fruit. The
exercises of religion and the practices of
asceticism are merely a means of livelihood for
men devoid oC intellect and manliness. There-
fore the so-called sacred books, the three Vedas,
have been composed by rogues and can com-
mand no authority. A PutreHi sacrifice per-
formed for the })irth of a child may yield either
ol; the two results — positive and negative which
is doubtful. Wlien a child is born the knaves
say that it is due to the power of their incanta-
tions uttered in performing the rites. When
a child is not born they explain the event as
being due to the rites being incomplete in some
way or other. The priests say that a beast slain
ill a sacrifice will itself go to heaven. How is
it that they do not kill their own old fathers
ill a sacrifice in order to send them directly to
heaven % If the offerings in a funeral ceremony
may produce gratification to beings who are
dead, then in the case of travellers, when they
start it is needless to give provisions for the
jorney. All these ceremonies were ordered by
the Brahmins as a means of their livelihood.
They are worth no better than that. Hence,,
our religious ceremonies our endeavour to
propitiate the gods, to satisfy them by prayers
and offerings are vain and illusive. Religion
is the invention of individuals desirous of
deceiving their fellow men inorder to further
their own selfish and ambitions motives. So
let us eat, drink^ be merry, for to-morrow we^
26
INDIAN MATERIALISM
die. As the consequence of this kind of think-
ing, Kama or fultilment of desire, became the
summum bonnm of human life. They were in
search of the supreme bliss or contemplative
joy, which was available in freedom only. They
maintained that there is no particular place
named heaven. Kven the Vedas themselves
doubt the existence of a world beyond. If a
man may go to another world after death why
may he not come back again perturbed by the
love of his friends and relatives ? When once
the body is reduced to ashes how can it ever
go to another world f When we die, everything
ends there. We do not enter into a region of
pain or of darkness unrelieved by a single ray
of light. That God is the judge, does not stand
to reason, because, in that case partiality and
cruelty on the part of God will be indispensable.
If God visits us with the evil consequences of
our sins He becomes our enemy for nothing.
Therefore it is better not to have a God than
to have a cruel and partial God. So there is
not even such a thing as God, the Supreme
author and governor of the world, an omniscient
spirit. The senses cannot reach Him, AdrUa,
principle of causality, and inference itself have
been denied. The Vedas reveal no signs of
infallibility. How can we ascertain that an all-
knowing, all-pervading and all-powerful spirit
exists f Nature and not God, is the watch word
of our School.
With this enlightened credo the Lokaya-
tikas laid aside the traditional life of religion
and settled down to strain every fibre of their
INDIAN MATERIALISM
27
being, so long frittered away for heaven’s sake,
for worl^ing out their immediate earthly wel-
fare. The result of this movement was an
asihration for freedom. By freedom they meant
all-roiind freedom — freedom for the individual
as well as for society ; freedom for man as
well ns For woman ; freedom for the rich as
Avell as for the poor ; freedom for all individuals
and foT* all classes. They exhorted all to cast
off all the shackles which had bound them for
ages and to march shoulder to shoulder towards
Freedom. The wonderful consecpience of this
struggle for freedom was the rise of Buddhistic
-culture. Buddha’s views against the vedic
sacii flees, the memorising of the vedic mantras
and fruitless repetition to retain them in
memoT-y, the caste system, the authority of the
V'edas and the worship of the deities, the magic
practices and the mortifications and other
ascetic practices — have their counterpart in
the views of Lokayata. It is perhaps for the
reason that Buddhism was greatly influenced
by the Lokayata School that we find in later
accounts of Lokayata the doctrines of
Buddha and Charvaka almost amalgamated
.and the name Charvaka sometimes applied to
Buddha. India had been seething with free
thinking and Buddha was the product of this
freedom. No man ever lived so godless yet so
god-like a life. But the people were not satis-
fied merely with social and religious freedom.
Their aspiration was for political freedom also.
This aspiration was realised in the rise of Politics.
Chandra Gupta and his grand-son Asoka who
28
INDIAN MATERIALISM
Fine arts.
brought the jarring states of India under one
rule and set up the Mouryya Empire. Politics
became incorporated with the Lokayata School,
which ignored AnvikBik\ and Trayl, the
sciences dealing with the supersensuous, and
appreciated Dax^dan\ii and Var^a Coercion
and Economics, as the only branches of
knowledge deserving special cultivation. The
earthly king became the only god. So long,
Kama or pleasure was considered to be the only
good of human life. Now Artha or material
advantage, was added to it. As the Lokayatikas
captured the hearts of the cultured and the
common people, they became earnest in working
out their immediate earthly welfare. The result
of this movement was the generation and pro-
pagation of different arts and sciences.
Vatsyayana keeps records of some sixty-four
names of Indian fine arts which Qourished
probably in this period of Indian
materialism. Kambalas'vatara, Ajitakes'akam-
balin and many other materialists flourished
and wrote their works on Indian materialism
in this period. The Samanna phalasutta keeps
the following records of Ajita^s view. There is
no such duty as the giving of alms or sacrifice
or offering. There is neither fruit nor result
of good and evil deeds. There is no such thing
as this world or the next. There is neither
father nor mother nor beings springing into
life without them. There are, in the world,
no recluses or Brahmans who having under-
stood, and realised by themselves alone both
this world and the next make their wisdom
INDIAN MATERIALISM
29
known to others. A human being is built up
of four elements. When he dies the earthy
in him returns and relapses to the earth, the
fluid to the water, the heat to the fire and the Ajita s
windy to the air. The four bearers take his
dead body away ; till they reach the burning
ground men utter forth eulogies but there his
bones are bleached and his offerings end in
ashes. It is a doctrine of fools, the talk of gifts.
It is an empty lie, mere idle talk when men say
there is prophet therein. Fools and the wise,
alike, on the dissolution of the body are cut off,
annihilated and after death they are not. This
Ajita flourished during the life-time of Buddha.
Up to that time Polities was not incorporated
with the Ijokayatika. kSo there is no trace of
politics noticeable in the teachings of Ajita.
In later accounts, specially in the record pre-
served by Kristia Mis'ra, it is mentioned very
distinctly. Kilsiia Mis'ra gives almost a
perfect account of the doctrines of the Lokayata
School, formed in that period. liis account
contains almost all the elements belonging to
the teachings of this School. “Lokayata is
always the only s'astra. In it, only perceptual
evidence is authority. The elements are earth,
water, fire and air. Wealth and enjoyment are
the objects of human existence. Matter can
think. There is no other world. Death is the
end of all.’’*'
30
INDIAN MATERIALISM
Pleasure,
tlie only
good.
The Third Stage.
This prosperity and success of the Lokayata
system ended in corruption and misunderstand-
ing. Extreme form of freedom gave birth to
licentiousness. Supreme bliss was transformed
into sensual pleasure. Enjoyment of pleasure
— gross sensual pleasure — became the only end
of human life. Licentiousness became predomi-
nant in the country. India lost its previous
supremacy — freedom of society, freedom of
religion and freedom of polity. People became
slaves of their senses. Elevated teachings of
Brhaspati became absorbed into the eroticism
of his wicked followers. Gratification of the
senses became the only good of this SchooL
Let us enjoy pleasure and pleasure alone.
Pleasure is the only thing which is true and
good. The only reasonable end of man is
enjoyment. We know pleasure is never pure,
never free from pain. How then can pleasure
be the highest end of life ? But because there
is pain and because pleasure is mixed with pain
should we therefore reject our life f Should
we fling away sheaves of paddy rich with the
finest white grains because they are covered
with husk and dust f Should we refrain from
plucking lotuses as there are thorns in them ?
Shall we not take fish because there are bones
and scales ? Should we exclude rice from our
meal only for the trouble it will give in hus-
king ? Who will not soothe his mind and body
in ambrosial moonlight though there are spots
in the moon ? Shall we not enjoy the pleasant
breeze of summer, because, there is slight dust
INDIAN MATERIALISM
31
in it ? Shall we abstain from sowing in a
ploughed land watered by rain, lest the water
on its surface should become muddy 1 Should
we not prepare food for fear of beggars
Unmixed happiness is not available in this
world ; yet we cannot overlook the least bit of
it. In wordly lil*e we smile on the weal of our
dear ones and weep in their woes. If the
laughing face of a son or the lustre of a delight-
ful daughter can impart to us celestial happi-
ness why will not their death or their atta(‘k
with some Fatal disease find us overwhelmed
with grief f IF the presence of a beloved wiFe
makes a heaven oF this earth, her departuie
will surely leave us in eternal darkness. Thus
what gives you pleasure now will cause your
pain another time. We cannot totally get rid
of troubles even when we have no tie of affec-
tion in this wide world. The heart of a man
who has none to call his own in this populous
world, is but dej^ressed, full of misery and dry
as a desert. He must not be a common man,
who even in such conditions can maintain peace
of mind. But even a man who is quite alooF
from all social ties cannot escape occasional
mishaps, viz., disease and accidents. The
sudden attack of an ailment can make a total
change in our hajjpy state of affairs. And,
when health goes, it takes away pleasure with
it. The loveliness of a moonlit night, the cool
breeze at day break, the beauty and scent of
flowers, the melodious songs of sweet bird^; —
none of these can please a man when he is not
in health. You may remain jolly even without
32
INDIAN MATERULISM
.a friend. But bodily pain is sure to render
you feeble and restless. Besides, we are in
terrible distress by occasional appearance of
cyclone and thunderstorm, sudden attack of a
ferocious animal, or, the undesirable occurrence
of famine, drought or deluge. Still we must
say that this world of ours is not full of troubles.
True, there is sorrow everywhere ; in kings’
palaces and beggars’ huts, in the high souls of
the learned and the superstitious minds of the
illiterate, in the beautiful mansions of the
luxurious and the dark caves of the sages.
Sleep in your house or walk outside, enter the
temple or hide in the forest, run to the burial
place or wherever you like, — no where can you
escape misery and pain. Still we must say that
tlie amount of pleasure in this world is greater
than that of pain. If such be not the case, why
do people so earnestly desire to live and become
frightened at the name of death f Tell them to
renounce this world, and they will at once
exhibit utter reluctance. For, how is it possible
to bid adieu to this pleasant world which is the
abode of joys and luxuries ? How delicate are
the green leaves of the springy and how lovely
is the rose ! Is not the sunshine a glorious
thing ?
If sorrows were more frequent than delight,
men would have escaped misery by suicide.
Most men are unwilling to die ; and hence it is
evident that in human affairs pleasure has a
larger sphere of influence than pain. It is also
to be remembered that happiness is at its best
-only when experienced by contrast with misery ;
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
83
a,iid hence, it may be said that existence of
troubles in the world has a certain necessity.
Blessings of rest can be fully enjoyed only after
hard labour. The ever healthy man cannot
•comprehend the ease and comfort of having a
sound body and a sound mind. If you are to
receive full satisfaction in your diet, suffer
from hunger first. The more you sustain the
agony of thirst, the greater will be your delight
in drinking cool water. You fear a dreadful
night with heavy rainfall and terrific thunder-
storm when dark and dense clouds have covered
the whole sky, and all the trees and houses
have been blown away by the furious wind.
But after such tedious hours, when the sun with
celestial beauty appears for the first time on
the eastern horizon of the bright sky dispersing
the lingering darkness and unfolding all the
lotuses of the earth will you not look more
pleasant than ever ? The same thing happens
when two lovers meet after long separation.
They have long been tormented by the heart-
rending affliction, and they have shed constant
tears and breathed out many a long sigh. Now,
their re-union will produce a heavenly bliss
which an ever-happy couple cannot have any
idea of. Perpetual happiness may be desirable,
but it is practically unbearable. What pleases
you now, will be disgusting after constant use.
Even a palatable dish cannot but bring satiety
if we are to take it daily. Variety of taste is
needed, pungent, astringent, and bitter flavours
should be interchanged with sweets. So, it is
foolishness, no doubt, to overlook pleasure only
3
84
INDIAN MATERIALISM
on the ground that it is not constant owing
to the intervention of pain. Therefore, a man
should do that which yields pleasure in the end^
Even sages like Vyasa tell you that one should
fulfil the desire of a woman who is overcome
with passion. The moon-god, the lord of the
twice-born, enjoyed very eagerly the wife of
his preceptor Brhaspati, the founder of our
School. Everybody knows the story of Indra^
the god of gods, and Ahalya the wife of Gotama.
Hence, there is no need of restraining sexual
appetite. Enjoy all sorts of pleasure, according,
to your own desire. Where is unanimity among,
the great men in accepting the interpretations
of the S'ruti and the Smy tis ? An intelligent
interpretation should not be rejected if it
favours the enjoyment of pleasure. The sago
Panini who says in ^ Ti^tlyh apavarge/ that
the third sex will be engaged in finding out
means of salvation is necessarily of opinion
that the other two sexes should enjoy sensual
pleasures. Carry out the commands of Kama
which even gods like Brahma could not trans--
gress. The Vedas, too, are nothing but the
commands of the gods. Then why do you show
more respect to the latter ? Forbear from all
disparaging and contemptuous remarks about
women in order that you may hope to have the
company of the most excellent of the deer-eyed
beauties in heaven. Exert yourself for pleasing
your beloved and indulge your own inclina-
tions. These are the only roots of the tree of
happiness. ^Pleasure is the good’ — ^is the cry
of nature. The animals know no other principle-
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
35
of action than pleasure. Children are sensitive
to pleasure only. The grown up man, the
apparently grave and sober, all seek and pursue
pleasure ; the virtuous man enjoys pleasure in
the cultivation of virtue and even those who
refute the statement that pleasure is the object
of desire, find pleasure in such refutation.
‘‘Whatever the motive, pleasure is the mark ;
For her the black assassin draws his sword ;
For her dark statesmen trim their midnight
lamps ;
For her the saint abstains, the miser starves ;
The stoic proud for pleasure, pleasure scorns ;
For her affliction’s daughter grief indulge ;
And find, or, hope, a luxury in tears ;
For her, guilt, shame, toil, danger we defy
Therefore, pleasure is the highest good of
human life. The only good of life is the
human life. The only good of life is the
individual’s own pleasure. We should fully
enjoy the present. To sacrifice the present to
the future, is unwarranted and perilous. The
present is ours. The past is dead and gone.
The future is doubtful. The present is all that
we have. Let us make the most of it. With
this credo the Lokayatikas of that remote
period of Indian history preached and practised
the theory of the extreme form of hedonism,
according to which sensual pleasure is the only
end of human life. Here, in this stage of Indian Charvaka.
Materialism, the School of the Lokayatikas in
addition to its old names Barhaspatya and
Lokayata got the designation Charvaka. The
word means entertaining speech. It is derived
36
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
The
Buddhists
and the
Jains.
from charva, chewing, grinding with the teeth,
eating, swallowing virtue and vice. ‘‘While
you live drink, for once dead you never shall
return.” “As long as he lives let a man live
happily ; after borrowing money, let him drink
ghee.” The propagation of this eroticism was
the first step towards downfall of the elevated
system of Lokayata which was considered so
long as the only system of Philosophy in India.
In this stage of Indian Materialism the
Buddhists and the Jainas came to the field of
philosophy to preach spiritualism. In their
first appearance they pretended to be the
successors of the old heretics, i,e,, the followers
of Bvhaspati, by directing their attacks mainly
against the doctrines of sacrifice as actually
preached and practised in the Vedic School.
They became, like the Lokayatikas, very
popular for the time being, as the minds of the
people were still then captured by Materialistic
doctrines. But as time went on the state of
things began to change. The Charvakas came
to know what these new comers really were.
They led their opposition against the orthodox
Buddhists and Jains as they previously did
against the Vedicists. The result of this oppo-
sition was that the Lokayatikas met with
opposition from the side of the Vedicists as well
as from the side of the Buddhists and the Jains.
By this simultaneous attack from various sides
they were for the first time pushed to the
corner. The philosophers of the Vedic Schools
now became very strong being aided by the
spiritualistic doctrines of the new heretics —
INDIAN MATERIALISM
37
the Buddhists and the Jains, and took the field
as successors of the sages of old and repelled
the attacks on the permanent principles of
spirituality. As time passed, these Vedicists
appeared on the field one after another in order
to oppose the heretics in general — both old
and new — the Lokayatikas, the Buddhists and
the Jainas. They opposed the materialistic The six
views of the old heretics and the anti-vedic orthodox
doctrines of the new heretics. The pioneer of
these advocates of the orthodox Vedic Schools
was perhaps the sage Gotama, who adduced
very strong arguments against the theory of
Dehktma vkda or the theory, which preaches
that the body is the Self, of the old heretics and
established the theory that the body is different
from the soul. Then came Kai^ada who made
an endeavour to refute the theory of Svabhava-
vada or Naturalism of the old heretics and
propagated the theory that the diversity of
creation is not possible for svabhava which is
unconscious. The diversity, according to
Kap-ada is produced from the atoms, which are
unconscious, through the will of God in agree-
ment with the doings of the previous births.
After him Kapila, who is regarded by some as
representing the oldest tendency of philosophy,
came to the field and formulated his arguments
in favour of Dualism for which the field had
already been prepared by his predecessors.
Then came Patanjali who propagated the theory
’of Yoga and tried to establish the theory of the
existence of God. When, through the influence
of these teachers the mass mind was almost
38
INDIAN MATERIALISM
Lokayata
leaned
towards
spiri-
tualism.
inclined towards sipiritualism and belief in the
transmigration and spiritual nature of soul took
almost complete possession of the mass mind of
India, Jaimini apppeared and made an attempt
to establish by argumentative discussions that
the Vedas are infallible and authoritative, that
Karma or action is more powerful than even
God, if there be any, that for the sake of the
purification of mind the performance of Karma
is indispensable. When through the influence
of Jaimini, the minds of the people became pre-
pared, by performing duties, sanctioned by the
Vedas, for conceiving the spiritualistic soul, and
the influence of anti-Vedic doctrines and
tendencies was, for the time being, almost
removed from the mass mind, Vyasa came to
the field and preached Spiritualistic or idealistic
philosophy. Lokayata, being thus opposed by
these strong enemies, grew impatient and leaned
towards spiritualism. This stage may be called
the second or the middle stage of its downfall.
In this stage it admits, gradually, the identi-
fication of self with the sense-organs, the
principle of life and with mind shaking off its
old doctrine of Dehatmavada or the doctrine
of the identification of Self with the body. The
first view or the doctrine of the identification
of Self with the sense organs, is based on the
facts that consciousness and bodily movements,
follow from the initiation of the senses and that
the judgments expressed in T am blind^ showing
the identity of the self with the sense-organs
are universally accepted as valid. Still opposed
by the spiritualists it maintains that the vital
INDIAN MATERIALISM
39
principle itself is really the source of intelli-
gence as the senses depend for existence and
operation on it. When this view too was
attacked its sponsors came to maintain that
consciousness is a quality of the mind. The
other organs are only the means of indetermi-
nate sense-knowledge. It is mind alone that
introduces the element of determinateness.
More over, mind controls by its power of voli-
tion the outer-organs and may persist and
function singly even wlien the latter happen to
be absent. Therefore the mind is the true self.
All these have been recorded by Sadananda in
his Advaita Brahma Siddhi. ‘Sadananda speaks
of four different materialistic Schools. The
chief point of dispute is about the conception
of the soul. One School regards the soul as
identical with the gross body, another of the
senses, a third with breath, and the fourth with
the organ of thought.’ On the other hand, the
Liokayatikas had so long maintained that per-
ception is the only source of knowledge. Now
being severely attacked by its opponents, who
maintained the authority of inference, it showed
for the first time its leaning towards admitting
inference as a source of knowledge. In the first
step it said that for practical purposes
prohahility was sufficient. At the sight of
smoke rising from a certain place there arises
in the mind a sense of the probability of fire
and not of its certainty. This is enough for all
practical purposes. For this end there is no
need to assume the existence of a distinct kind
of evidence, called Inference. When further
40
INDIAN MATERIALISM
pushed to the corner this school said that the
followers of this school were prepared to
accept inference as a means of right knowldege
as it was useful in our daily life. But the
mechanical form of inference as proposed by
the Buddhists and others can by no means be
considered a medium of right knowledge as
it is thoroughly impracticable for daily use.
In other words, there are two classes of In-
ference — one class inferring something restored
in future and the other class inferring what
has already taken place. The inference about
what is past is accepted and the inference
about what has not been perceived such as
Paraloka, God, Soul is rejected. Purandara
flourished, in this period, as an advocate of
the Charvaka school. S'ankara Kamalas'ila,.
Abhayadeva, Jayanta and the unknown
author of Sarvamata Sangraha record his^
views. Being pushed, further, to the corner^
this school accepted, in this stage, even ether
as an element. Gu^aratna keeps its record.
Fourth Stage.
But every action has its reaction. The-
opposition of the Vedicists against the
Materialists was not without its re-action. As
they were supported by the Buddhists and the
Jains in their attack on the Vedic sacrifices,,
the old heretic oppositionists became ver^
powerful. They got their general name-
l^astika. Nastika, in this period. Vedic rites proper were
gradually more or less pushed to the back-
ground. New scriptures were then in course
of preparation, fully adapted to the needi^^
INDIAN MATERIALISM
41
tastes and tendencies of the changing times
but not entirely divorced from all connection
with the Vedas. Voluminious Tantric and
PauriijLic works grew up in this period and The
satisfied the needs of the times. As these
Schools were originated for satisfying the ruraij.as.
needs of the people of different mentalities
elements of different nature were expressly
visible in them. As representatives of the old
heretic School, whose influence was still then
predominant in the country, they included and
adopted the popular doctrines regarding
indulgence of the senses, and as successors of
the spiritualistic schools, they gave them an
esoteric purpose and thus modified them to
some extent. Since then, the period of the
great Hindu revival after the fall of Buddhism,
India has been popularly Vedic ix, Paura^ic
and Tantric in her broad outlook. For this
reason, perhaps, in the centuries after Christ
we meet with very few names of Lokayata
Philosophers, though the system must have
been in existence even so late as the time of
Haribhadra; GuQ-aratna; S'antaraksita; Kama-
las'ila; Siddhasena; Abhayadeva ; Kris^amis'ra;
Sriharsa; Jayanta; Sadananda; Madhava-
charyya etc. who have recorded and criti-
cised its theories in their works. It was
S'ankara and his school who did not even
consider the Charvaka school as a system of
philosophy, although, in Sarva Siddhanta
Sangraha he maintains that by adopting only
those means which are seen such as agricul-
ture, the tending of cattle, trade, politics and
42
INDIAN MATERIALISM
administration etc. a wise man should always
endeavour to enjoy pleasures, here, in this
world. It was with S'ankara and his school,
that the ^eat reaction proceeded against
Indian Materialism which in Madhavacharyya,
who considered the Lokayata system as the
lowest system of philosophy, secured the most
-decided victory.
Conclusion.
Just as Plato, one of the spiritualistic
thinkers of the west, in his fanatical zeal would
have liked to buy up and burn all the works
of Demokritos the father of western material-
ism, so it is probable that these advocates of
the vedic orthodoxy, in their fanatical zeal
collected and destroyed the original works of
JS^haspati School of Philosphy, the extreme
materialistic system of India. As the Buddhistic
-and the Jaina Schools were spiritualistic in
essence they did not meet with total annihila-
tion. Or, it may be, that for a considerable time,
the views of this school became feeble and
unpopular after which they lost their indepen-
dent existence and became absorbed into other
.schools of spiritualistic philosophy. Although
the works of Bfhaspati were destroyed, the con-
tinuity of the influence of his school was at
no period completely broken.
We have already seen that the Lokayatikas
got tlie designation Nastika as they became at
one with the Buddhists. Some of the sects of
the degenerated Buddhists, in which laxity in
sexual morals was one of the features, became
gradually affiliated to the Lokayata school. One
INDIAN MATERIALISM
43
of these sects was the Kapalika sect. The
Xapalikas are a very ancient sect. They drink
wine, offer human sacrifices and enjoy women.
They strive to attain their religious goal with
the help of human corpses, wine and women.
They are dreaded by all for inhuman cruelties.
Bhavabhuti, Krisija Mis'ra and Kavikar^apura
refer to such KapMikas in their respective
works the Malatimadhavam, the Probodha-
•chandrodayam and the Chaitanyachandro-
dayam. Brhaspati of Arthas'astra fame says
that the Kapalika is alone to be followed for
the purpose of attaining pleasure.
Formerly, this Kapalika sect flourished in
.an independent form. In course of time it
became weak and lost its independence.
Probably the inhuman cruelties or the dreadful-
ness of the sect brought about its ruin. As
Kama or the enjoyment of sensual pleasure was
the goal of this sect it came gradually to be
.affiliated to the Nastika form of the Lokayata
school according to which the summumbonum
^of human life is, as shown before, the enjoyment
of gross sensual pleasure. Thus the Kapalikas,
like the Assassins, became the solitary historical
example of a combination of materialistic
philosophy with cruelty, lust of supernatural
power and systematic crime. Or, it may be that
the followers of orthodox schools, through bitter
contempt, identified the Lokayatikas with the
fierce Kapalikas, as in previous cases the
Vedicists used freely the terms of abuse like
‘Bastard’ ‘incest’ and ‘monster’ with regard to
the Lokayatikas. At the time of Banaspati, the
44
INDIAN MATEMAUSM
author of Arthas'astra, these Kapalikas were a
distinct sect. In Gu i*:aratna’s time we find theni^
identified with the Lokayatika school which
had already become a hated name in the
country.
The Lokayatikas were a creed of joy, all
sunny. Through their influence, at that period
of Indian history, the temple and the court,
poetry and art, delighted in sensuousness.
Eroticism prevailed all over the country. The
Brahmin and the Chapdala, the king and the
beggar, took part with equal enthusiasm in
Madanotsava, in which Madana or Kama was
worshipped. References to this festival are not
rare in works of poets like Kalidasa, Bis'akha.
Datta and Sreeharsa. ‘Dance and song, flower
and the red powder faq, swinging and playing,
all these created an atmosphere of light amuse-
ments from which all sterner laws of sexual
ethics were dismissed for the time being and'
men and women mixed indiscriminately, the
green trees wearing red apparel, as it were,,
owing to profuse fag that filled the whole ^
atmosphere over which the April sun threw its
gaudy purple rays.^ They assimilated the
element of sexual romance from the KapMikas.
The essential feature of this romance is — love •
for one, with whom one is not bound in wedlock..
As a reaction against this practice of sexual
romance, Vaisnavism made its appearance and
the Madanotsava, the doctrine relating to sense-
indulgence must have been favourably received
by a large number of people. To counteract
this evil, the orthodox school of the Vaisnavas-
INDIAN MATERIALISM
45
included and adopted the popular doctrines
regarding indulgence, but gave them an esoteric
purpose and thus qjiodified them to some extent.
For this reason Wfe l^nd that the Dolotsava has
retained the light pleasures and gay amuse-
ments of Madonotsava in many respects, and
the Vaisnavas have given these festivals a
far more sober character in respect of sexual
freedom.
But the ever flowing current of the
Lokayatikas did never remain suspended for a
<}onsiderable period of time in Indian cultural
history. It made its way in the teeth of all
obstacles. After the great Brahmanic renais-
sance the Lokayata sect took shelter under
different forms in different parts of India. In
Bengal, an old sect of the Buddhist Mahayana
school chiefly concerned with sexual romance
gave up its independent existence and like the
Svabhavavadins and the Kapalikas became at
one with the Nastika Lokayatikas and the
Lokayatikas on their part incorporated them-
selves with that community. The old element
of sensualism of the festival Madonotsava of
the Nastikas, a sanction for the gratification of
josser pleasures, is still found to linger in this
sect. The name of this sect is the Sahajia sect.
The very name Sahajia reminds us of the
doctrine of Svabhava of the old heretics. The
three chief physical appetites of man are eating
and drinking where by his body is sustained
and sexual intercourse whereby human life
is ijropagated. Considered in themselves they
are natural and harmless. So the Sahajias say
46
INDUN MATERIALISM
The
Sahajias.
‘there is no wrong in the eating of meat and
drinldng of wine nor in sexual intercourse for
these are natural inclinatiouil of men/
In the meetings of the Sahajias men and
women take their seats indiscriminately with-
out any scruple and with full freedom. The
Chaijdala cooks the food and the Brahmins
take it without hesitation. Unless hunger ia
appeased the Sahajias can not pray. Large
plates full of eatables are brought on the bed
spread before the members. Men and women
S)it there and eat them freely. In their joy
women put food into the mouth of men and the;
latter are not slow in returning the attentiony
and the house rings with merry laughter. They
consider the Vedas and other holy scriptures,
to have been manufactured by worldly men for-
their own selfish ends. They have no regard
for the Brahmins. They entertain no respect
for either the priestly class or for their elders.
Women care nothing for their husbands. They
revolt openly against the Brahmins, the Vedas’
and the Hindu society. Most of the ^songs of
the Sahajias are about boats, trades, mortgages,
farming and a hundred other topics of rustic
interest of Lokayatra. They set forth cannons^
and theories with a boldness which is really
amazing. Caste, rank in society or orthodoxy
of views are out of the question in their society..
They entertain the utmost freedom in thought,
in religious and social matters. They are
absolutely beyond the prejudices and conven-
tions of the ordinary people. The Sahajias
allow the indiscriminate mixing of men and
INDIAN MATERIALISM
4T
women. The motto of a Sahajia woman is —
‘he who will capture our heart, we will belong
to him.’ If the man of her love wants her body
she must give it. She must give her all with-
out reserve. The Sahajias do not believe in the
established ideals of womanhood represented
by Sita, Savitri and the Suttees who burnt
themselves with their dead husband in days
gone by, as living examples of absolute devo-
tion. These wives of Hindu scriptures and
epics were actuated by hopes of getting rewards
in the next life and praises from society in this
for their chaste life. To the Sahajias love is
religion. They believe that Deha or material
human body is all that should be cared for and
their religious practices are concerned with the
union of men and women. The famous Bengali
poet Chandidas was a follower of this cult.
But Chaitanya apprehending its corruption
and misuse declared himself in clear language
against all sexual romance. The Sahajias did
not believe in human soul and in anything
beyond the pleasures of the present moment.
They believed in Deha and in nothing else. On
one occasion some Brahmins of the ot*thodox
community were performing tarpai^a in the
river Ganges. This was the custom of taking
handfuls of water from the river and throwing
them down, by which acts they believed the
thirst of their departed ancestors would be
allayed. One of the founders of the Sahajia
cult saw this and taking handfuls of water like
them threw them on the bank. This act
attracted the attention of the Brahmins who*
48
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
-asked him the reason for doing so. The Sahajia
replied — Tf your water will go to your departed
forefathers who are far away mine ought to
go to my vegetable garden which is only a
mile from here and certainly not so remote as
the land of the dead.^ This sect raised objec-
tions against the superstitions and conventions
of the orthodox schools. Extreme lawlessness
characterised this sect.
All these views of the Sahajia Lokayatikas
remind us of the old heretics. Most of the
views of the Nastika Charvaka or Lokayatika
of this form are recorded by Chiranjib
Bhattacharyya of Bengal in his famous work
VidwanmodatarangiJjtL In his account of the
Nastika school we find a blending of several
independent doctrines like Barhaspatya,
Svabhava, Bauddha, Jaina and Kapalika. The
orthodox community amongst the Buddhists
the Jains and the Hindus were bitterly hostile
to the supporters of these views of the Sahajia
Lokayatikas in every stage of their develop-
ment. This is perhaps why its followers tried
by all means to hide their societies from the
public view. For this reason perhaps the
Sahajias hold their meetings in secret. All
their old books being destroyed by their
opponents, the orthodox schools, they now
have a particular language in circulation
-amongst themselves named the Sandhyabhasa,
a language which is not understood by people
outside the pale of their own society. But thus
hidden like owls at daylight, the Lokayatikas
INDIAN MATERIALISM
49
of the Sahajia sect of Bengal could not fight
long with the orthodox communities.
After the Brahmanic revival, in the age of
Chaitanya they were seeking shelter, and, in
Bengal, Birabhadra, son of Nityananda gave
them a shelter and converted them to Vais-
jjLava faith. This conversion, however, does not
mean much. They merely cried aloud the
names of Chaitanya and Nityananda and
there ended all their connection with
Vaisnavism. They adopted the VaisijLiva
creed merely for expediency’s sake, in order to
have some status in the society which had
rejected them altogether. Although, with the
revival of the Brahmanic form of Vaisi^iavism, Vaishna-
the Loyayatikas became very weak and identi- vism.
fied themselves with the Vaisi^avas, yet the
school of free-thinking did not die out in India.
It lives not amongst a few but amongst
thousands to-day. They are not guided by the
spirit of Hindu Renaissance. They have now
included the Bible, the Koran and even the
Grantha Saheb of Guru Nanak. A movement
of absolute freedom is visible in every depart-
ment of Indian life — social, political and
religious. The advocates of free-thinking of
this age are no doubt the successors of the old
heretics — the Barhaspatyas. They have now
taken complete possession of the mass mind of
India. They constitute the bulk of the cultured.
4
APPENDIX.
Some relevant notes :
Nastika
(1) The word is as old as the Maitrl
Upanisad III 5 Nastikyam VII 10.
(2) PaQ.ini gives its derivative meaning.
Pacini IV. 4. 6.
According to Pacini a Nastika is one who
maintains the view that there is no other world.
(3) According to Manu a Nastika is one
who condemns the veda. II 11. It is mainly
the veda which establishes ‘next world.^ If
the authority of the veda is rejected ‘next world^
cannot stand. So, one who condemns the veda
discards also the ‘next world^
(4) The word has been used in the Maha-
bharata in the same sense as suggested by
Manu.
(5) According to Gita the Nastikas are
Godless people. XVI. 8. Kumarila in his sloka
Vartika maintains the same view. (Pratijna-
Sutra, tenth verse).
(6) In the later works, the word has been
used for vilification. The Madhvas vilify the
S'aivas and vice versa by using this term.
Lokayata
(1) Old as Pamayana. The word means
‘dry arguments’ or ‘vita 13 . da’ or ‘causistry’.
(2) It is often used in old Pali text in the
same sense.
INDIAN MATERIALISM
&1
(3) The word is available in Patanjali’s
Mahabha sya. Mahabhasya VII. 3. 45.
(4) The name Lokayata occurs inPa mini’s
ukthadigaija. Pai^Lini Ahstadhyayi Sutra IV.
2. 60.
(5) Lokayata has been recognised by
kautilya as Dars'ana. Kautilya Artha S'astra
1 . 1 .
Charvaka
Charvaka is met with in the Mahabharata.
Later on, this is the only term by which Indian
materialism is designated.
The word charvaka is often taken as
charu (beautiful) and baka (speech). And it
is interesting to find that charu is also a
synonym for Brhaspati. Thus it may be
suggested that charvaka stands for ‘the word of
Brhaspati’.
Pa sal?, da is also a term which is used in
the same sense.
Materialists, Sceptics and Agnostics
Vis'vakarman speaks of a class of thinkers
who are enwrapt in misty cloud (niharena
pravrtah) and with lips that stammer (jalpya).
The subsequent thinkers speak of avidya or
ignorance and vicikitsa or perplexity. Sams'aya
or doubt is another term which is met with in
this connection in subsequent literature.^ The
Mui^dikas and the vajasaneyas use the term
avidya in the sense of anything which is not
transcendental knowledge (para vidya) or the
^ Mu. Upanisad II. 2 — 8,
52
INDIAN MATERIALISM
knowledge of Brahman (Brahma vidya) and
anything which is not conducive to ideal self-
realization. The word vicikitsa, according to
Asuri, means a mental state^. In the katha
Upanisad (1. 20) the word has been used in
the sense of philosophic doubt as to man^s exist-
ence after death : ‘some say he exists ; others,
he does not.’ These latter are no doubt the
sceptics and agnostics of ancient India.
Vis'vakarman had evidently in mind (1) those
hymnchanters who doubted the existences of
Indra^. (2) Pararnesthin, who saw no possi-
bility of knowing any cause or reality beyond
the original matter^ and (3) Dirghatamas, who*
was ignorant of the nature of a first cause®. In
subsequent literature we find that the kelyas
were of opinion that the know-all does not know
at all, while the know-nothing knows every-
thing.®
And as stated above, some sages according
to the kafha upanisad, doubt the existence of
man after death (1. 20.). Scepticism and
agonisticism are the expressions of a free mind
that refuses to accept traditional wisdom with-
out thorough criticism. In this respect the
materialists of ancient India are very closely
related to the present-day sceptics and
agonistics. However minor their position may
be in the field of philosophy, they are, no doubt,.
^ Br. Upanisad I. 6.3.
3R.V., VIII. 89. 3.
4 R.V., X. 129. 6—7.
® R.V., I. 164. 6.
«Ke. Upan9«d II. 3.
INDIAN MATERIALISM
53
the fathers of free and independent thinking
in India.
Bfhaspati Laukya or Brahman aspati, who
may be termed the founder of Indian
materialism, first embodied his views about
the origin of the world in the hypothesis
that in the beginning being came out of
non-being — astah Sadajayata, that matter
is the ultimate reality. Pararnesthin treated
matter as the ultimate reality as Brhaspati
did, but disavowed all possibility of knowledge
of the ultra-material substratum, if there
were any. He refused to extent his meta-
physical inquiry beyond matter. Byhaspati
was a materialist. Paramesthin was a sceptic.
But they were inter-related. Subsequently
Mahavira speaks of the Ann.xniyas, who pre-
tend to be intelligent but are infact unfamiliar
with truth and have got rid of perplexty or
puzzlement. These Aij-ijaviyas are ignorant
teachers who teach ignorant pupils and speak
untruth without proper investigation of know-
ledge (Sutrakrtanga, 1. 12. 2). These ignorant
teachers seem to be the agnostics of ancient
India. Subsequently Brhaspati of the Char-
vaka School is pictured as an agnostic of this
type. The close relation between the agnostics
of the SutrakrtaijLga and the materialists of the
Puraijias cannot be ignored.
In the Buddhist records'^ Safijaya, who
maintains a sort of indifferent or neutral atti-
tude towards such problems of metaphysical
Mahavagga^ I. 23. 24
54
INDIAN MATERIALISM
speculation as those which are concerned with
the first cause, the final cause, future life,
retribution, and so forth is best known as a
sceptic. According to Safijaya, the same
philosopher tends to be an agnostic and a
sceptic. When he freely confesses his inability
to know the ultimate beginning and end of
things, which is virtually the same as admitting
that these are unknown and unknowable, he is
an agnostic. When he doubts or hesitates to
admit the correctness of all bold assertions
about matters beyond human cognition, he is a
sceptic. What we find in the teachings of
Dirghatamas, Paramesfhin, the kenlyas and the
kajhas is represented by the agnostics and
sceptics.
Jayaras'i and Tattvopaplava simha
The work of Jayaras'i is an important new
chapter in the history of Indian philosophy.
No work of the charvaka school itself was
known before. Jayaras'i^s treatment is clear
from the very tittle of the book ‘tattvopaplava^
means ‘upsetting of all principles.^
There were different classes of Charvakas.
A particular division of school engaged
themselves in rejecting all sorts of pramaijias,
Jayaras'i belonged to that group. This is
in adition of what has been discussed
in this book regarding the first stage of Indian
materialism.
Jayaras'i has accepted Bphaspati as his
Ouru and with his permission demolishes the
doctrines of other schools.
INDIAN MATERIALISM
65
The method adopted by him may well be
called as critical. To him there are no valid
means of knowledge and to establish his thesis
he with the help of surgical instruments has
examined different schools of Indian philo-
sophy.
The probable date of Jayaras'i Bhaffa is
the first half of Seventh Century A.D.
Some of the genuine Lokayata Sutras rescued
from obscurity.
The following Sutras are attributed to
Byhaspati, the founder of the Lokayata School,
and in them we find the statements of the
Charvakas quoted verbatim.
( % )
(^)
(»)
(J() ^ 3^^:
(v*)
(<s)
Of these eight Sutras the first four are
quoted by Bhaskaracharyya as the Sutras of
BThaspati of the Lokayata school of philoso-
phy. The first three are also quoted by
Kamalas'ila in his Commentary on the Tattva-
sangraha and also by Guijaratna in his
56
INDIAN MATERIALrISM
Tarkarahasyadipika/ The third and second
part of the fourth and the seventh are quoted
by S'ankara in his commentary on the Vedanta
Sutra. The fifth, seventh and eighth are
quoted by Sadananda in the Advaita Brahma-
siddhi as the sutras of Brhaspati.*
The fifth Sutra is quoted by Nilakantha
(in his Commentary on the Gita) as belonging
to Bphaspati of the Lokayata school.* The
sixth Sutra is collected from the Commentary
on the Sammati Tarkaprakarana named Tattva-
bodhavidhayini of Abhayadevasuri.t The
seventh aphorism is quoted (in the Commentary
on the Gita) by S'ridhara as belonging to
Brhaspati of the Lokayata school. |
We know from the Panjika of Kamalas'ila
on Sloka 1864 of the Tattvasangraha* and
from other similar sources that a Sloka some-
times came to be called a Sutra. We also
* Vide Brahma Sutra Bhashyas of Bhaskaracharyya
and S'ankara (III. 3. 53. —
and the Panjika of Kamalas'ila (Gaekwad’s Oriental
Series, p. 620 From the context
it is clear that the pronoun refers to the
Lokayatikas.) Vide also the commentary of Gu^-aratna
(on Sloka 84) of Saddars'ana Samuchchaya.
*Vide XVI. n—
t Vide Gujrat Puratattva series Vol. I., p. 70 —
t Vide XVI. 11.— ¥r«n^
' § ww I
INDIAN MATERIAU8M
57
know that works in a mixed style of Sutras and
verses are not rare in the field of Sanskrit
Literature. The existing editions of Vatsya-
yana’s Kamasiitra and Kautilya^s Artha S'astra
may be mentioned as instances to the point.
They are written in a mixed style of Sutras and
Slokas, the substance of the Sutras being some-
times summarised in the Slokas. Madhava-
charyya in his Sarvadars'anasangraha follows
this mixed style of prose and verse when
giving the Charvaka view. Tn view of the
facts, cited above, it will not be far from the
truth to say that Brhaspati of the Lokayata
school also wrote his ^sutra-work’ in a mixed
style of Sutras and verses and that the verses
quoted by Madhava as belonging to Brhaspati
are genuine i.e. they belong to the lost Sutra-
work of Brhaspati. These verses are quoted
below.
H ? II
II R II
asi ii ^ il
«rRg* i
3?i4 qr^ ^gq^ 1
qftr ^fm^nfeiT 11 1 ( 11
INDIAN MATERIALISM
WMlWdl n=«&3^^T5Tcls I
srrOT^s^qrfesiRW ^swrTsT#?^ ii ^ u
g# 5T)^ sgoT f;?WT f ?r fq%fi i
firl: II V* II
*1% Tl^fl 'RC ft (hi las I
5T^?JTft II I!
?ra?=^«Rt«n^ i
qrtFrt sTg^jp^ftr ^f%q.ii 8. II
^ ^rrfd I
=51^ Tfo^?iT^ 5r^s II ^o II
sR^^^nsi^ TiORTfi' 5i^t^?Tq:^i
irig srr# sT^H^«r« i
flrtgr^ II \\\\
Mention may also be made here of some
sutras, ascribed to the Lokayata school. They
are not directly attributed to Brhaspati. On
the other hand, there is no strong reason to
prove that they do not belong to the work of
Brhaspati. There are Sutras quoted in some
places as belonging simply to the Lokayata or
Charvaka school, while in other places the same
sutras are attributed to Brhaspati.
Again, there is no ground for supposing
that all these sutras belong to Brhaspati ; for
we know the names of other sutrakaras of the
Lokayata school, namely Charvaka, Purandara,
Kambalasvatara and Bhaguri.
In any case, there is no reason to believe
that they are not the Lokayata-sutras. They
INDIAN MATSR^ISM
59
iriay safely be collected as being the genuine
Siitras of the Lokayata school.
The said Sutras are the following : —
(^) '
(^)
(^)
(V ) '^5rT%?Tt
(i() ?^r-?I^3CT?L
(S,) ^R?<T0T:
(^) wHrra ^cih; ^air:
(<i) ^^r srifoisri ^roth
(S. ) q'?#f%^s¥rr^r3
(?o) 55^^ :a^?:^frf«5??«rTe 5»gct?i>5!:fq
?T?5rR
( ? 0 3^ ?n«nfVrj^?uit’qq::
sRsray^^ q»noi
The first six Sutras are ascribed by
Vatsayana in his Kainasutra to the Lokayata
school.* The seventh Sutra is a quotation by
Madhusudana in his Commentary on the Gita,
and it is stated to belong to the Lokayata
school.t The eighth Sutra is found as a quota-
tion by S'ankaracharyya in his Commentary on
the Gita. There it is referred to as an extract
from the work of the Lokayata school. f The
ninth Sutra is quoted in the Commentary on
* Vide Kainasutra I., 2. 25 — 30.
t ffir
60
INDIAN MATERIAUSM
the Tattvasangraha as belonging to the
Lokayata school. § This Sutra is also quoted
in the Commentary on the Sammati Tarkapra-
kar8ij.a in the same form and as belonging to
the same Lokayata school.tf The next two
Sutras are found quoted in the Commentary on
the Tattvasangraha as an extract from the
work of the Lokayata school.* The last Sutra
stated above ivS quoted in the Commentary on
the Sammati Tarkaprakaraijia as belonging to
the work of the Charvaka school.! We are
tempted to add here another Sutra in S'loka
form of the Svabhavavadins who are later on
indentified with the Lokayatikas and the
Charvakas. This verse originally belonged to
the standard work of the Lokayata school.
The verse is this : —
In addition to the above, we find some
other Sutras of the Lokayata school which are
directly attributed to persons other than
Brhaspati. This proves that Brhaspati was
not the only worker of this school. After him
there must have been many workers in the
§ From the context it is
evident that the pronoun cT?! refers to the Lokayata
school.
^ Gujrat Puratattva series, p. 71.
* Gaekwad's Oriental series, p. 523.
t Gujrat Puratattva series, p. 73.
INDIAN MATERIALISM
61
field. There is, therefore, no strong evidence
for the supposition that these Sutras are not
equally genuine. These Sutras are —
( 5 ) ^ 15 ^
Of these three Sutras the first is quoted in
the Commentary on the Sammati Tarkapra-
karana as belonging to a work of the Lokayata
shcool and is attributed to a philosopher of the
name of Purandara.§ Perhaps, this Purandara
was the author of a later siitra work of the
Lokayata school in which the views of Brhas-
pati were expounded. The next sutra is quoted
in the Tattvasangraha — as belonging to Kam-
balasvatara, one of the earliest writers of the
Lokayata system.* Perhaps, this Kambalas'-
vatara was another expounder of the system
like Purandara. The last sutra is quoted in
t Bhattotpala’s commentary on Br hatsamhita^
Saddars'ana Samuclichaya Vritti of Gunaratna, Dalla-
na's commentary on Sus'ruta, Chapt. I.
§ Vide The Sammati Tarkaprakarana of the Giijrat
Puratattva series Vol. I., p. 70 —
Most probably this Purandara is identical with Piiran-
dara mentioned in the Commentary of Kamalas'ila and
referred to in the Tattvasangraha of Santarakshita.
From the foot note of the page we know that this
Purandara is mentioned also in the Syadbhadaratnakara.
* Vide p. 621 —
I
62
INIHAN MATBRIAUSM
the Commentary on the Sammati Tarkapra-
karao-a — as a saying of the Charvakas.t
Jayaras'i in his Tattvopaplava simha has
quoted the following Shtras :
(^) i
( \) qmf^garT 5*i:
(.») 5WI srtr»i« ^raigsn q?:ra<iT i
5ftf«nBT^Sfq %ST 55Wf5ET II
Krishna-mis'ra the author of Probodha
chandrodaya riataka and the unknown author
of Sarva-mata Samgraha quoted the following
verse :
SRJrajT^ JTRTfe^f i
iffT?5iT ^ ifirertfwr ii
From what has been said above, we may
reasonably believe that all these passages are
the statements of the Charvakas quoted verba-
tim and they are equally genuine although
compared with the vast ocean of Barhaspatya
siitras now lost, they are but a few drops.
t Vol. I., p. 69—
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